Was the Weimar Republic doomed from its very beginning? |
How strong were the roots of democracy in 19th Century Germany ? |
Was there a revolution in Germany during 1918-19? |
Introduction- Create a context- when this was occurring, link in with the war, state Germany was in What are you going to argue- one issue you may want to pick up on briefly is the complexity of the phrase revolution- don't analyse in great detail now but address it later in the essay- what constitutes a revolution? E.g. Any conclusion of this issue depends on the interpretation of the word revolution. Revolution infers disruption in the population, a mass demand for reform (particularly in the context of 1917 Russia), the creation of a new system of government, and a permanent change in the ruling of society. Although Germany in 1918 was in a state of turmoil, the nature of the changes did not fulfil the other characteristics of revolution. |
Issue 1- what was the revolution from above? |
What were the problems facing the silent dictators? Why did they introduce democracy? Was this revolutionary- in some ways yes because it marks a major change in the way the country is governed? But White- "Significantly the change had been brought about solely by the interests of the High Command and not through pressures exerted by the German People." Is the term revolution from above a contradiction in terms (oxymoron )- did it not help the silent dictators to strengthen their position. What would have happened without revolution from above? - Quite likely that German society was tending towards this model anyway. |
Issue 2- were the Kiel mutinies a potentially revolutionary threat? Reaction to orders of Admiral Scheer- 28 Oct- offensive naval action- sailors rebelled 30 th Oct- 2 crews refused orders 2 nd Nov- 20,000 sailors and workers called for establishment of German republic. Is this potentially a revolutionary situation? Compare with Russia March 1917 when the Tsar lost support of army- key moment. Why are the army so important? Soviet councils being set up throughout country- place in context of Russia- how are people going to react. Forced the Kaiser to resign- Republic declared- is this directly linked to Kiel? Would the Kaiser have gone anyway? Unclear, but the external threats from the Allies that they wanted to negotiate with democracy may also have been an important factor. OPPORTUNITY TO CREATE WORLDWIDE CONTEXT |
Issue 3- was the creation of the new Republic revolutionary? In a way this represents a key change- semi autocracy to republic. However problems. A revolution needs a clear vision of what is to be achieved- Bolsheviks, although minor party, had clinical direction in Russia. Lacking in Germany Uncertain start- Philipp Scheidemann- moderate SPD- declared Republic- Karl Liebknecht- Sparticist- declared soviet republic Why is this split so important?- Key moment- 10 November- new socialist government makes an agreement with General Groener to gain support of army- alienates communists.- SPD's side with establishment rather than communists. Why? |
Issue 4- Was there a mass support for revolutionary change? There was large scale discontent. However significant counter revolutionary influences- namely "stab in the back". Silent dictators had succeeded in diverting blame away from themselves- Dr Feuchtwanger- " The men swept to power in the revolution of November 1918 were held responsible for the collapse of civilian morale and accused of betraying theFatherland for their own ends." The establishment in Weimar is almost unchanged. After Groener/ Ebert pact Freikorps role highly influential. Many of public sector workers loyal to establishment. Should Ebert have initiated a whole scale change in the German infrastructure? |
Issue 5 - Did the Sparticists pose a revolutionary threat? Poor organisation- leadership stumbled into uprising. Was there ever a chance that the uprising could succeed ?- potential support due to discontent But significant members of establishment against communists? Was Ebert/ Groener the key- Hiden- "That great violence was also used against the German communists was a sad and bitter comment on the nature of the relationship developing between Ebert and the establishment." Why did communism succeed in Russia and not in Germany. |
Issue 6- Were there any revolutionary changes in Germany? Government structure Administrative and judicial machinery Organisation of the army Lives of the mass people What was the biggest change? What was the key factor in limiting the scale of change? |
Conclusion Layton- "The year 1918 saw in Germany a revolutionary situation but without a revolution. Or, put another way, if there was a revolution, it did not revolutionise." Do you agree? What was the biggest change? What was the key factor in limiting the scale of revolution? |
Key Words Dichotomy, zeitgeist, consequently, subsequently, thus, however, psyche, juxtaposition, Key Issue- The proximity of the beginning of the Republic and the ending of the war was unfortunate for the new Republic. Why was this the case? Weimar Constitution |
Key Issues Does the document contain the reasons for National Socialism? Proportional representation- did it encourage formation of new parties. Lee argues that it does- trying to convert proportional representation into stable government.is it too simplistic. Is wide spectrum a manifestation of a divided country? Is there a wide range of parties because of PR? Reichstag and President- relationship reflects fears felt by many of parliamentary sovereignty alone. President- 7 years, Commander of army, convened and dissolved Reichstag, appointed Chancellor and Reich government. Article 48- president could suspend civil rights in emergency- take whatever action needed to restore law and order. 3) Continuity of traditional social and economic institutions- Weimar constitution- civil service, judiciary and education systems all preserved in old forms Layton- "The result was that powerful conservatives, even reactionary, forces were able to exert a high degree of influence in the daily life of the republic." Lee- "…what started out as a parliamentary regime was captured by the conservative right and converted into an authoritarian one." Theodore Hess- German president- 1949- "Democracy came to Germany in the wake of defeat." Events Elections to Constituent Assembly took place on 19 th January 1919 SPD emerged as largest party- 38% of the vote Outnumbered by anti socialist parties representing middle and upper classes- DNVP, Peoples Party, Democratic Party and Centre Started 6 Feb- Weimar guarded by 7,000 Freikorps 10 Feb- agreement reached on interim constitution- accountable to assembly SPD Centre Democratic Party Coalition government formed Weimar constitution approved by Assembly on 31 st July 1919- owed much to efforts of Hugo Preuss- constitutional language and member of liberal Democratic Party Complex document consisting of 181 separate articles White argues three main features Constitution established a federal system in which political authority was divided between individual states(Landers) and central government. The powers of the state were relatively limited. Weimar- hybrid of British style parliamentary system and partly on US with president Normal circumstances- Germany should be governed by ministers responsible to Reichstag Under Article 48- President given powers to intervene in an emergency- assess this in context of 1919 Reichstag- elected by proportional representation- White- “It is sometimes claimed that this was an important cause of Weimar Germany’s frequent changes of government in the 1920’s. This is not true.”- instability due to large number of parties- each capable of winning sizeable share of the vote- government could only survive if three or more parties in agreement. Key features of Constitution Reich Chancellor and Reich Cabinet In ordinary circumstances- they formed government of Germany- Reich Chancellor and Reich ministers had to resign if lost Reichstags confidence Reichstag- lower and more important house of legislature and law making- elected for 4 years Bill of Rights- guaranteed freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom of association President- elected for seven years- head of state and commander in chief of armed forces- Article 48- emergency powers to suspend individual rights- take nnecessary measures to restore order Reichsrat - upper and less important house of legislature- represented 17 Lander or states in law making process- could block or undo laws but Reichstag could veto if 2/3 majority- each state one vote for 700000 inhabitants State or Local governments- responsible for own educational and judicial systems and police force- Electorate all over 20 Verdicts on constitution D. Peukert- “Despite its imperfections, the Weimar Reich constitution provided an open framework for an experiment in democracy which would have been quite capable of further refinement under more favourable circumstances.” K. Fisher- “It was one of the most democratic documents in the world. In 1919, however, it was doubtful whether such a democratic constitution could work in the hands of a people that was neither psychologically nor historically prepared for self government.” The Treaty of Versailles White- perception spread that Weimar government completely to blame for signing treaty |
3 areas of Treaty arouse especial bitterness Manner in which Treaty made Belief in Germany that Wilson's 14 points would provide basis for negotiations but 14 points largely ignored- DIKTAT. Loss of land to Poland- deeply resented- One million Germans found themselves under Polish control- at odds with wider aim of Self Determination East Prussia cut off from reminder of Germany. c) Lee identifies problem areas of Posen and West Prussia- provided important access to the Baltic and Sudetenland which became Czech. Reparations- condemned as unjustifiable- no foundation in either legality or morality. "War guilt lie"- became favourite target of extreme right- argued Allies aimed to turn Germany into "economic corpse." Most Germans convinced war fought for defensive purposes. |
Question asked by Lee- Was the Treaty of Versailles a "Carthaginian Peace"? Lee's Major problems of Treaty Not involving Germany in discussion- Germany never able to live with settlement. Failure of League of Nations- League struggled to find meaningful role- future reconciliation had to be attempted through agreements. If US had been in League they may have been able to change Weimar |
Did Treaty undermine Weimar? Versailles created deep and widespread resentment- hoped to gain Austria and Sudetenland from Austro Hungarian Empire- Self determination seemed to work against Germany. Article 231- War Guilt- justification for reparations- lead to major resentment against Weimar. Weimar employed historians to prove war not Germany' fault but this improved image of the army. Revived cause of conservative right- would they have flourished with such vigour without Treaty? Republic tainted at outset- "Stab in Back" introduced by Hindenberg- November 1919. Hitler's ideas given credibility by Treaty- stab in back and November criminals allowed extreme right to collaborate with right. Economic impact debatable but perceived to have ruined Germany. |
Layton- "On no other political issue was there such universal agreement within Weimar Germany as in the rejection and condemnation of the Treaty of Versailles." J.M. Keynes- “I believe that the campaign for securing out of Germany the general costs of the War was one of the most serious acts of political unwisdom for which our statesmen have been responsible.” |
Key issues “The practical impact of Versailles was not very burdensome; but what mattered was how the Germans felt about it.” Do you agree? “Too harsh to be acceptable to most Germans but not harsh enough to keep Germany suppressed.” How valid is this criticism of the Treaty of Versailles? Political Extremism- How seriously did the left and right threaten the Weimar Republic? |
Lee- Political instability enhanced by the lack of commitment shown to the Republic by majority of population- support for three parties of coalition- dropped between 1919-20 from 76.2% to 47.5% The Sparticist Revolt- Jan 1919 Bavarian socialist republic declared. Sparticists feared that opportunity slipping away 6 Jan 1919- Sparticist units occupied newspaper officers, government buildings and railway stations. Rank and file lead revolt Rising been anticipated by mid and upper class Ebert- Groener Pact- offered army support in event of uprising. Suppression of Sparticists Numerically weak and poor weapons Freikorps arrested Liebknecht and Luxemburg. Both were shot- important political consequences- poisoned relations between KPD and SPD White- " This helped to create an atmosphere in which throughout the Weimar period collaboration of any kind between the two parties was out of the question." Deprived KPD of most able leaders but didn't end threat from extreme left. How serious was threat from left? At end of War KPD established control over state of Bavaria and Berlin and Brennan Existence of working class discontent KPD- received backing from Lenin's Russia BUT Germany never in real danger of succumbing to Communism. KPD lacked popular support- highest share of vote- 12.6% Working class protest in 1918-19- motivated largely by economic issues German industrialists took sting out of working class protest- 8 hour day KPD poorly led- Karl Leibknecht or Rosa Luxemburg didn't control or direct Sparticist rising Majority of Socialist leaders determined and resolute in opposition to revolutionaries. The threat from the right Early 1920's- extreme right posed more serious threat than extreme left. White- "The extreme right had deeper roots in German society than the extreme left and in the early 1920's moved in its favour." Lee - extreme right directly linked to German surrender at end of 1918 and Treaty of Versailles. Who were the political parties and paramilitaries of the extreme right? DNVP- German Nationalist People's- party of Junkers and big business- also middle class and working class support- monarchist and authoritarian.- total non co-operation in Reichstag- put pressure on moderate parties. The Nazis- founded in 1920- anti Republican, anti Communist, anto democratic, anti Versailles ultra nationalistic Nazi's force in state of Bavaria- not though at National level. Paramilitary Groups After Treaty of Versailles- Freikorps disbanded or incorporated into army. Other groups continued throughout 1920's Kapp Putsch- March 1920- led by Wolfgang Kapp- marched into Berlin- key moment- Ebert asked army for help. Army refused. Weimar relied upon workers going on general strike. Strength of extreme right- supporters entrenched in key positions- army very sympathetic Strong anti Republican ethos in judiciary, police universities and secondary schools. Political terrorism- Erzberger target because he headed German delegation at Versailles- he also held together centre parties DDP and SPD. The extreme right hoped his death would lead to the end of the Weimar. Rathenau torn to pieces by machine gun and hand grenade- June 1922- Hite and Hinton- “His death was seen as a major blow to the stability of the Weimar Republic but it led to a general revulsion against these tactics.”- 700,000 people demonstrated against it in Berlin The Economic and Social Crisis- 1919-23 Problems of economic legacy- linked to war. Lack of capital for investment, large trade deficit, difficulties of readjusting war economy to requirements of peace- problems added to by the Treaty. Major cause of problem- massive government deficit and declining value of mark Period ends with hyperinflation |
Was hyperinflation a result of longer term problems? Layton- “ ..the reparations issue should be seen as a contributory factor to the inflation and not as a primary cause.” Layton- "Germany had made no financial provisions for a long drawn conflict and because of political difficulties the imperial government had refrained from increasing taxation." Borrowed massive sums for war bonds- victory would have allowed Germans to recoup debts from allies. Layton- "By 1919 Germany's finances were in "an unholy mess" and the republican government was in an unenviable mess.” Major problem- gap between expenditure and income- solution income taxation OR cut expenditure. Neither popular as they would alienate support for Weimar- increase unemployment and depress economy. Weimar kept spending money- this lead to inflation. Layton- " Therefore, the reparations issue should be seen as a contributory factor to the inflation and not as a primary cause." |
b) Did French invasion cause hyperinflation? Snyder- “…the entire problems was closely connected with the reparations demanded by the Allies.” Did German government deliberately provoke inflationary crisis? Asked France for delay in payments- 1922- Poincare (French leader) demanded France's rightful money. France occupied Ruhr- industrial heartland of early 1923 Invasion helped to unite the nation against the allies Government urged passive resistance- meant government unable to collect tax and French prevented delivery of coal to rest of Germany. By autumn 1923- cost more to print note than note was worth. Layton- “The fundamental cause of the German inflation is to be found in the mismanagement of Germany’s internal finances from 1914. No attempt was made to reduce spending.” Lee’s conclusion is good- German inflation caused by a combination of factors which interacted. War- halved value of mark. Weimar government refused to face tough decisions- deficit financing. Hyperinflation brought Allies to senses. |
What were the consequences of hyperinflation? Were the German middle class destroyed? Certain research questioned the idea Key to understanding winners and losers was the nature of individual’s income and degree of indebtedness. Real winners- those who could pay off debts, mortgages and loans with inflated and worthless money. Worked to advantage of business men, landowners and homeowners. Big Business exploited cheap credit to create large industrial conglomerations e.g. Hugo Stinnes- end of 1923 controlled 20% of industry. Losers-Savers and those who had invested in war bonds- money became worthless. Those on fixed incomes or welfare support including students, retired and sick lost out. Farmers coped reasonably well- food in demand. Wages and salaries more difficult to interpret. Layton- “Two people from the same social class could be affected in very different ways depending on a host of variables.” |
Was hyperinflation an unmitigated disaster? In 1980’s historians interpreted it more positively- Holtfrerich - years up to end of 1922- Weimar economic policy amounted to a rational strategy in national interest.” Drawing line needs to be placed between good and bad inflation- Major social and psychological impact of 1923 Profiteering, crime and prostitution- this was seen to challenge the faith in democracy. Republic appears to be amoral- perception vital to understanding impact. Popular confidence in ability of Weimar to maintain social stability lost Layton- “… the inflation of 1923 was not the occasion of the Weimar’s demise, but it left a deep and lasting psychological scar from which Weimar could not disaossociate itself.” |
Why had the Republic not collapsed? |
Early attempts to overthrow Republic lacked overall co-ordination to succeed- radical left never more than 15% of the working class support- working class overwhelmingly supported the SPD’s Main consequences of KPD- prevented any possibility of link with SPD. Far right fragmented into small volkish groups- often competed against each other. Far right lacked full co-operation of conservative right Far right perceived as thuggish and undisciplined- didn’t have support of army leadership. Two political fringes found it difficult to persuade bulk of population in the early 1920’s that another change of regime was necessary. Lacked charismatic leadership and personality 7) The two effective examples of direct action were both organised by the government General Strike of workers in Berlin for Kapp Putsch Passive Resistance in the Ruhr Ebert made full use of the emergency powers- Lee- “It could be argued that the early history of the Article 48 helped to save the Republic, just as its late history was a significant factor in its destruction.” Foreign governments more understanding to the German demands- the nationalist French government of Poincare was replaced by a more moderate administration. |
Weimar Republic- Relative Stability- 1924-29 |
Economic recovery- How secure was it? Layton states- often argued that introduction of Rentenmark and Dawes Plan ushered in period of five years growth. By 1928- production levels generally exceeded those of 1913- result of more efficient production techniques. Foreign investors attracted by high interest rates Hourly wages rose in real terms every year from 1924-30 Major improvement in social welfare provision BUT Layton- “the rapidity of German recovery was deceptive.” 1926- production declined More imports than exports By late 1920’s- agriculture 44% below national average. Unemployment stayed above 1 million- rising from 1928( is this a key date) Rationalisation and cartelisation of industry- did this help or hinder Extension of welfare schemes increased costs |
What were the reasons for the economic problems and were they so serious as to represent a long term threat to health of the economy? |
Impacts and issues World economic conditions didn’t favour as Germans depended on exports- World trade never returned to pre war levels. Fall in world agricultural prices. Farmers declining wages- contraction in demand within economy. Savers lost confidence after hyperinflation- no investment capital. Government spending up- relying on international loans. Economy dependent on US Employers increasingly resented high welfare costs at a time of limited growth Peasant farmers and Junkers increasingly hostile to the regime; the former looked to the Nazis; the latter to a more authoritarian system of government. Borchardt - (historian )- Germany living beyond its means- “abnormal, I fact a sick economy, which could not possibly have gone on in the same way even if the world depression had not occurred.”- great problem- taxes and high labour costs. Holtfrerich - major problem- high interest rates- discouraged borrowing but still didn’t encourage country to save lack of entrepreneurial attitude and inadequate from the investment from the industrial elite Other arguments- workers and employers both contributed to problems- unwilling to cooperate Layton’s conclusion German economy- dependence on foreign loans made it dangerously susceptible to the shock waves from any future dislocation in the world economic situation. Various sections of the German economy- started to go into recession from 1927. Layton- “ the Weimar economy experienced a crisis before the crisis and America’s financial crisis- although of vital importance- actually only exacerbated an already grave situation.” |
Political Recovery- Was it a republic without republicans? |
Elections from 1924- 1928- extremist parties of left and right had lost ground- polled less than 30% of voters. DNVP- peaked December 1924- 103 seats- 20.5 % of votes May 1928- DNVP- 73 seats. Nazis reduced to 12 seats by 1928- 2.6 % of vote Parties sympathetic to republic- generally maintained their share of the vote- SPD made substantial improvements After 1928 election- Grand Coalition of SPD, DDP, DVP and Centre formed- led by Hermann Muller of SPD- support of over 60% of Reichstag- was this the emergence of a democratic consensus. But Elections of 1928- atypical Shouldn’t disguise continuing fundamental flaws in parliamentary and party system Parties continued to reflect traditional interest of religious denomination or class Differences between main parties was so fundamental- possibility of any lasting coalition always very limited. SPD and DNVP never worked together. Layton- “In effect it was impossible to create a coalition with a parliamentary majority which could also consistently agree on both domestic and foreign policy.”- very little chance of democratic government Governments from 1924-1930- only 2 boasted majorities- longest survived 21 months. Attitude of Weimar’s political parties towards parliamentary government was naïve and irresponsible. Development of narrow issue parties- unwilling to compromise- major controversy over relatively minor issues e.g. National flag- choice of black, red and gold opposed by conservatives who favoured old imperial flag of black, white and red Weimar lacked culture of heroic symbols- no charismatic leader to deepen popular support |
The various parties SPD- strongest party in Reichstag until 1932- Remained between wish to uphold interests of working class and commitment to democracy. Some on left feared working with liberal parties. SPD didn’t join any of coalitions until 1928. Moving further to the left – expanding scope of Welfare state Centre Party provided political lead- backed all governments from 1919-32- attempts to bridge social classes in Germany very limited. During 1920’s party moved decisively to the right- 1928- leadership passed to Kaas and Bruning- more emphasis on conservatism and authoritarianism. German liberalism- DDP and DVP- share of vote haled since 1919. Divisions within both parties DNVP- since 1919- opposed in principle to the Republic- refused to participate in government. Electoral terms- success- December 1924- 103 seats. Revival of Germany in post 1923- DNVP hopes for restoration of more authoritarian regime diminishing. DNVP recognised- to exert influence on government policy, party had to be prepared to participate in government. DNVP- twice opted to join coalition- 1925-27 Certain elements of party- opposed co-operation Vote fell by 1928 by ¼- more reactionary elements able to re-assert themselves and elect Hugenberg as new leader- rejected parliamentary republic- major media tycoon- owned 150 newspapers 1929- DNVP working closely with the Nazi party. |
President Hindenberg- 1925- varying interpretations His assumption of power didn’t immediately result in marked swing to the right- loyal constitutional responsibilities- did his election help republic gain respectability? But 1 ) Hindenberg no identity with republic and values- entourage mainly anti republican figures- preferred to include DNVP and exclude SPD Nicholls- “ he refused to betray the republic, but he did not rally the people to its banner.” |
Conclusion No putsch from left or right- anti republican extremists were electorally contained- law and order restored. But No signs of any strengthening or maturity in political structure. One coalition government could fall over issue of national flag and another over the creation of denominational schools. Growing cynicism which pervaded popular attitudes to party politics- divorce between people and the system- fall in electoral turnout. |
Foreign Policy- |
Key Questions Was Stresemann a good European or a good German? What foreign policy did Stresemann pursue? How successful was Stresemann’s foreign policy? How far did Stresemann’s foreign policy strengthen the Weimar regime? Dominated by determination to revise Treaty of Versailles hard-liners- resist implementation of treaty- no payments, re-arm etc Colonel Stulpnagel- 1926- called for borders to be resisted. Moderate revisionists- dual policy of economic development at home and reconciliation abroad- policy known as fulfilment- Josef Wirth and Stresemann |
Foreign Affairs Stresemann recognised Germany had been militarily defeated- rejected simple hard-line solutions 3 main aims Reparations Protect Germans abroad Readjust eastern frontiers- Danzig, Polish corridor and Upper Silesia |
How did he try to achieve aims? Recognised France had legitimate security interests Earnt goodwill and co-operation of Britain and US- they exerted influence on France. Maintained Rapello connection with USSR. Using Germany’s economic rather than military potential as a means to get Versailles revised. Gaining the powers of the western powers and ending Germany’s diplomatic isolation |
Dawes Plan International recognition of Germany’s problems Procured credit French evacuated Ruhr during 1925 German economy imported 2x as much capital as paid out. Reparations repayments improved relationship with French. |
But Reliance on US |
Locarno Pact Germany, France and Belgium agreed to respect existing frontiers- Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia agreed to settle future disputes peacefully- but no acceptance of existing frontiers. Germany now treated as an equal partner Stresemann achieved great deal with little loss Germany joined League of Nations- 1926 1928- kellog Briand Pact- Young Plan- revised scheme of payments- pay till 1988- ¼ of original total |
Conclusion 1926- Stresemann- awarded Nobel Peace Prize Kolb argues that he was “astonishingly successful” However Circumstances worked strongly in Stresemanns favour- international context and economic prosperity By time of his death- nationalist opposition mobilising itself against Young Plan- In years after 1929- gradualist revisionism gave way to harder line On extreme right- Perception- Stresemann’s policy of accepting Treaty- seen as capitulation- Locarno only benefited the French and Germany shouldn’t have anything to do with League as it enforced Versailles Stresemann’s achievements were too subtle to be greeted by the majority |
Which is the most accurate view of the Weimar Republic from 1924-29 |
A remarkable period of recovery. A superficially promising period, but in reality marred by major weaknesses |
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Introduction to the Weimar Republic |