Introduction to the Chartist Movement

Key Questions

Key Ideas

What was the Peoples Charter?

Peoples Charter

• Formed by London Working Men's Association- May 1838- William Lovett worked with Francis Place and Joseph Roebuck

Eric Evans- "It was a highly political document: none of its terms had to do with wages, conditions of work or the economy."

• Reflected priorities of informed and literate artisan radicals who had been parliamentary reformers for at least generation.
• Can be seen as a commentary on OLD CORRUPTION- a criticism of system built up in 18th century by which landowners used wealth and power to get their way- after 1832 evidence landowners paid close attention to how tenants voted.
• Payment of MP's way of ensuring working men could afford to sit in parliament and also way of reducing influence of landowners.
• Aimed to increase influence of "productive classes" and reduce "non productive classes" (non productive seen as landlords)

Richard Brown- " The Charter that emerged was a very moderate document that restated the traditional radical demand for universal suffrage."

Dorothy Thompson- "… while they held it, people saw the Charter as a liberating force which would affect all their lives, and not simply admit them in a formal way to full citizenship of the country."

The origins of Chartism

Long Term Issues

1) Radical tradition and ideas

• Thomas Paine- Rights of Man- citizens had rights to pass judgement on governors
  Set agenda for radical discussion- corresponding societies discussed issues.
• Mass platform and Henry Hunt
  The methods and messages of Hunt's campaign from 1815-19 are closely linked to the Chartists. He raises certain issues that became ingrained within the psyche of British radicals, most namely the link between Old Corruption and the existing franchise.
• William Cobbetts- Political Register- popular radical publication

Eric Evans- "Probably the best way to understand the significance of the movement is to appreciate that it emerged towards the end of a long period of agitation by political outsiders."

Both of these sections are closely linked around the idea that your social condition was linked to voting- this marked a significant change in British History and provided the main focus of the Chartist campaign.

2) Changing nature of British Society

1. Franchise out of date
   • Britain ruled by aristocrats and large landowners- did they represent lives of people over whom they ruled.
   • Major changes in society- industrial revolution- key towns had no MP's
   • Restriction of vote
     
2. Industrial Revolution created long term casualty
   • E.g.- Handloom weavers- literate and highly informed politically- skills no longer needed with mechanisation
     Evans- "Handloom weavers looked to Chartist to defend an entire political and social culture."
   • Free trade attacked old work practises- removal of apprenticeship regulators
   • Chartist can be seen as re-asserting ancient rights
     
     

Short Term Causes- context of the 1830's

1) The betrayal of 1832 - the reform bill had lead to disappointment within many sections of the working class. Many radicals had believed this would be a great reform. However it was increasingly recognised that the reform bill had never intended to help the plight of the working classes. The middle class now had the vote and historians such as EP Thompson see this as the final process in creating a clear divide between a propertied middle class and the disenfranchised working class.

2) War of the unstamped Radical papers and pamphlets had been vital in spreading the radical message throughout post war radicalism (1815-19) The Whigs brought in a legislation that tightened up the stamp duty charged on publications. They reduced the stamp duties but ensured that this policy was enacted across the country. The working class radicals saw this as a tax on knowledge. This policy played a vital role in politicising many of the later Chartists e.g. George Julian Harney sold papers illegally in the war of the unstamped.

3) Factory Reform - the conditions in the factories were appalling. Ten Hour movement popular in Yorkshire- campaigned for shorter hours. 1833 Factory Act left hours unaltered.
Richard Brown- "The frustrated factory reformers swelled the rising Chartist tide and many of the northern delegates of the Chartist Convention in 1839 had initially entered politics through the ten hour movement."

4) New Poor Law - Arguably least popular of the Whig policies.
1834 Poor Law Amendment Act- reduced cost of relief by introducing stringent workhouse test.
The poor could no longer receive outdoor relief in their own homes- they had to move to the workhouse.
Widespread protest in rural and industrial north- the workhouse became symbol of Whig cruelty.
Late 1836- began to introduce Poor Law north of Trent- bitter opposition.
Leaders- Richard Oastler, Fergus O'Connor, Joseph Raynor Stephens, and Henry Hetherington
Poor Law introduced at time of economic decline- stories spread of savage workhouses.

5) Trade Union activity

Trade unionists at end of 1830's began to attribute problems to single cause- unreformed parliament. see R.Brown p15-16
Conclusion
a) Many people were members of all the campaigns- you could be involved in the war of the unstamped, factory campaign and Trade Union movement- they were not mutually exclusive.
b) Economic depression at the end of the 1830's provided the fuel for this discontent. This triggered an anti Whig sentiment and a demand for an improvement. The problems though had a political dimension- they appeared to be linked to the unreformed parliament.
c) These economic problems linked into the wider tradition of English radicalism.

First Phase - 1837-40

Key Issues

1) Development of National Convention - alternative and more democratic assembly to parliament proposed during 1838- members decided by mass meetings.

• Was it too democratic a movement? -
• Did this lead to poor organisation and decision making?
• Who were the members of the first convention?

Richard Brown- "In many respects, the convention was rather less representative than O'Connor claimed: under half of the delegates were working men."

2) Mass Meeting

• Processions, flags, music- feeling of inclusivity- all welcome.
• Sense of drama between crowd and speakers-
• sources recreating just the content of the speech will fail to reveal the importance of this relationship
• these themes have been researched by James Epstein- Lion of freedom, and John Belchem.

3) National Petition

• Developed by BPU- worked together with Peoples Charter.
• Size of Petition staggering- 1,280,000 signatures.

4) Working Class Press

• Dorothy Thompson argues key to first stage- foundation of Northern Star to her represents the start of the mass movement.
• Northern Star- dominated by O'Connor but allowed a range of ideas- again INCLUSIVITY a key- develops alternative and independent working class culture- poems, letter pages
• Develops nation-wide communication- plans meetings, lectures etc

5) Impact of Bull Ring riots

• presentation of petition hi-jacked by violence in Birmingham.
• Allegations that authorities triggered violence
• Effect- labelled Chartists as violent- warned away middle class.

6) Divided leadership

• growing rifts between William Lovett and O'Connor.
• Key issue- was O'Connor an advantage or hindrance to the movement.

7) What to do if Petition rejected?

• Problem never re-solved and revealed major splits in strategy.
• Edward Royle- "With the rejection of the Petition, collapse of the convention, Chartist as a movement was in danger of collapse."

  a) Sacred Month- but industrial areas not ready- workers suffering would be too great.
  b) Complete another petition.
  c) Improve organisation
  d) Violence and national uprising- e.g. Newport. Was a national uprising ever a possibility?

8) The reaction of the government.

• Calm and calculated.
• Arrested key leaders but avoided creating martyrs. E.g.. Initially planned to execute Newport leaders but later changed to transportation.
  Richard Brown- Government reaction conciliatory- allowed Chartists to alienate middle class reformers.
• O'Connor and Lovett imprisoned in early 1840- Chartist looked to have been defeated.

Edward Royle- "The first stage in the history of Chartist was over, with the men who had shaped its origins safely under lock and key, learning the errors of their ways. Chief of these appeared to be lack of organisation."

Overall

Richard Brown- "The tone of the movement was beginning to change: it lost some of its early spontaneity and optimism and its belief that the acceptance of the Charter was imminent."

Second Phase - 1840-42

Key Issues

1) State of party after first rejection

• Defeat and mass arrests in 1839-40 had left Chartist in considerable disarray.

2) National Charter Association

• Realisation that organisation needed improving- NCA created early summer 1840
• Claimed to be first independent political party of working class.
• During 1841- NCA claimed 50,000 members.
• Organised lecturing circuits
• O'Connors organisation.

3) Role of O'Connor

• Division with Lovett widened- O'Connor supported continuation of mass platform- Lovett regarded this as a failure.
• O'Connor toured country wearing fustian and rode in coaches surrounded by flags and banners.
• Becomes personality- did this help movement?

4) Use of the Second Petition

• Proposed by Dr. McDonnell in September 1841- more effectively organised than 1839
• 1 Million signatures
• House of Commons rejected it

5) New Movers

• From 1840 onwards Lovett argues educational reform necessary sequal to political change- Lovett proposes national association for "promoting the political and social improvement of the people."
• Aimed to re-create the elite politics and ideological focus of LWMA
• Create respectable working class based on values of artisan- winning vote test of moral character.
• O'Connor concerned Lovetts idea of respectability would threaten unity of working class- creates working class elite.
• O'Connor also argued that voting in Lovetts view was no longer a right but had to be earned.
• O'Connor criticised Lovett calling him a Knowledge Chartist

Other groups

• Christian Chartist- Henry Vincent
• Teetotalism- Robert Lowery
• Self Help

D. Thompson- shouldn't make mistake that O'Connor was against education or teetotalism. What so annoyed O'Connor was that Teetotal groups and New Movers were putting forward there ideas as alternatives to Chartist.

Also O'Connor believed that middle class values were being imposed upon Chartists and that one of the movements aims was an independent culture.

6) Other important groups

• Anti Corn Law League
• Complete Suffrage Union- Joseph Sturge

All groups aimed to increase link between middle class and working class.

• Anti Corn Law League - pro free trade- opposed to tariffs on foreign grain.
  Aimed to gain working class support for campaign- main message- lower bread prices.
• Complete Suffrage Union - developed in Birmingham by Joseph Sturge
  Re-alliance between middle class radicals and certain working class members- wanted to change name of Chartists as it carried violent connotations.

Alliance between working and middle class here always uneasy- middle class suspicious of Chartist influences.
Chartists saw anti Corn Law league as distration from main agenda.

7) Was the 1842 movement primarily economically motivated?

• Major issue- how in control were the Chartists in this protest-
• Rostow's model of economic protest- clear link between economic depression and protest.
• Economic depression triggers protest and improvement seems to end it.
• However fails to explain the multi facetted reaction to poverty- people react to poverty in different ways..
• Key in this incident- not just depression but employers reaction- wages are cut. People protest when something is taken away.
• Chartists and Trade Union link varies throughout the country but very strong in Lancashire- work together.
• No reason to see political and economic aims at this stage as mutually exclusive.

John Belchem- "Chartist cannot be understood by the changes in the trade cycle, by the study of economic statistics and charts of social tension."

Edward Royle- "The events of 1842 enable historians to glimpse the extent to which local radicals were able to express the grievances of the worker and make association between economics and politics."

8) Why did Chartist fail in 1842?

• James Epstein - Lack of centralised planning
• FC Mather- government reaction swift and effective- leaders arrested- protests put down- no martyrs created.
• Eric Evans- "Though the challenges of the authorities were extreme, the authorities were well equipped to meet them. Train could move troops quickly and efficiently. The government had learned not to over-react and a good harvest alleviated some of the grinding misery of working people."
• Leadership - too divided and reacted to situation rather than lead
• Enthusiasm of movement waned after 1839
• Working class increasingly split- unskilled often not involved in Chartism
• Economic demands not political- when economy improves- appeal of Chartism diminished
  

Third Phase- 1843-1848

Key issues

1) O'Connors control

JT Ward- "What was left of organised Chartist was now controlled by the megalomaniac Irishman, and he was now monarch of a declining kingdom."

• Increasingly negative image of O'Connor forwarded.
• Becomes MP
• Thomas Cooper disillusioned with movement.

2) Land Plan

• Conservative policy- reaction to growing dominance of machinery
• Influence for idea- Diggers and Levellers 1640-50's, Thomas Paine and Thomas Spence
• Popular with many working class- great enthusiasm Lancashire cotton towns, Midlands and Yorkshire
• Chartists plan to buy land- use subscriptions- charge 5 ponds for two acres a year- re-invest the profit to buy more land.
• Aim to create working class independence and re-structure society
• Large support but only 250 people received Land Funds managed poorly
• Did this represent a loss of reality?

3) Alternative directions

a) English and Irish Radicalism- large and growing Irish population, particularly in northern cities.

• Both Irish and Chartists critical of government- Ireland want repeal of act of Union.
• Close links- theoretically good for numbers and means government must maintain army in both Ireland and Britain.

BUT

• Catholic Church critical of Chartists
• Epstein- many English workers anti Irish
• Belchem- press portrayed Chartists as Irish- violent label

b) Internationalism

• Hetherington and Lovett- British working class part of wider European movement for working class freedom
• E. Jones and Harney- supported international revolution- both individuals limited influence.

Historian John Saville- 1848 up-rising needs to be seen in context of France and Ireland.

4) April protest

• High food prices brought rioting in March
• News of King Louis Phillipes fall- panic among property owners in Britain- fear of revolution
• Mass meeting- 10 April-
• 8,000 troops and 85,000 special constables- led by Duke of Wellington
• O'Connor forced to present petition with small group, not planned mass march
• Protest ridiculed by authorities
• Problems continue through summer but spies infiltrate
• Again reaction of authorities astute.
  

Other Aspects

Leadership

R.C Gammage first Chartist historian established orthodoxy on view of leaders

• Good leaders- William Lovett, Henry Vincent, Bronterre O'Brien- forward thinking
• Bad leaders- George Julian Harney, Ernst Jones, Fergus O'Connor

However in recent years this view questioned- key historian James Epstein view's Fergus O'Connor as the key factor in holding the movement together.

1) Physical force versus moral force

• Basic division between those who were willing to use force and those that relied on moral pressure.
• E.g. London Working Mens Association - moral force
• George Julian Harney's London Democratic Association - used more violent rhetoric

However

• Many leaders used violent language without ever wishing to see people rebel.
  Eric Evans- "Chartist leaders knew that a failed uprising was the worst outcome."
• Some of moral force leaders used violent language- eg Robert Lowery of temperence movement- violent rhetoric used as a device.
• Violent rhetoric helped to unify working classes and helped to differentiate from the middle class movements such as CSU.
  It was a way of asserting working class solidarity.

Overall view - successes of leadership

1. Responds to number of difficult situations extremely well, refusing to accept defeat eg. 1839 and 1842 people such as O'Connor maintain support.
2. The leaders produced some great popular journalism- Bronterre O'Brien- Poor Mans Guardian, Fergus O'Connor Northern Star, George Julian Harney- Northern Star
3. The organisation of meetings, lectures and events highly organised. Thomas Cooper arranged a series of lectures in Leicester in the time around 1842
4. All leaders stressed the importance of education even though they disagreed over its impact on the movement.
5. The leaders tried to transform an elitist artisan radical tradition into something more popular and influential.
6. They created an alternative culture for many working class areas including Church Chartism, Self help groups, Chartist schools.

Who were the Chartists?

Key Source problem

• Limited accurate data on make up of movement-
• rely on working class autobiographies- are they representative of workers at this time
• records of radicals,
• membership lists of the NCA,
• popular ballads.

Many of those associated with the movement have remained hidden to history, particularly those involved in the violent underground. Many supported Chartism without joining.

Issue of violence very difficult to assess- spy records are unreliable as spies relied on discovering potential revolutionaries- long tradition of the agent provocateur.

Geography of movement

D. Thompson- this was the first ever national working class movement.

• Supporters throughout the country from rural Cornwall and Isle of Wight to industrial north. It spread the whole of Britain- Wales, Scotland and England.
• Main areas for movement in Midlands, Yorkshire ( West Riding), Lancashire, South Wales, and Black Country
• London was not that influential in early stages of Chartism- becomes more so in 1848. One of key issues is that London's trades were too divided and a sense of community was difficult to foster.
• Most common area for Chartism were industrial villages and medium sized towns- eg Oldham, Ashton under Lyme, Stockport
• Larger cities and towns lacked community.
• Liverpool poor Chartist support in 1839 and 1842 because of ethnic divisions between Irish and English
• Movement weak in areas with strong Wesleyan Methodism and Catholicism
  

Gender

Role of women in movement neglected until Dorothy Thompson researched issue in 1970's and 1980's.

They have been neglected for a number of reasons

1. Feminist historians perceived them as insignificant as Chartists did not demand universal suffrage.
2. Very little source material left- few women ever involved in local leadership.
3. Earlier historians neglected cultural element of Chartism- concentrated on serious political message. Role of women vital in maintaining vibrant Chartist culture.

• Women often bore brunt of economic problems- particularly effected by introduction of poor law. They felt full force of Whig betrayal.
• Helped organisation of movement- co-ordinated meetings, parties, trips and tea parties.
• Boycotted shops who did not support Chartists
• Collected for Chartist prisoners, particularly after first rejection.
• In mid to late 1840's the role of women in movement becomes increasingly marginalised- maybe consequence of emerging Victorian gender identities.
  

Occupation

Only have source material from those high enough up the social ladder to read and write- does this mean that many Chartist supporters can never be identified?

• Many Chartists previously skilled workers- jobs down graded by industrial revolution
• Strong in textile areas.
• Skilled occupations that maintained status remained aloof to Chartism- bookbinding and watch making

Issue of those at bottom of society is very difficult to assess. It does need to be recognised though that the level of support and diversity was unprecedented.

Were the Chartists working class?

• Marx- working class proletariat means non capital owning
• However many of Chartists owned shops, small workshops,

Maybe that we need broader definition of working class- introduced by James Epstein, D. Thompson and D. Jones.